smoking statistics 2008 uk

smoking statistics 2008 uk
smoking statistics 2008 uk

Health, Age And Gender

Running Head: Health, Age and Gender

Health, Age and Gender

Name:

University:

Course:

Instructor:

Date:

Contents:

1)      Introduction:

2)      Theoretical framework:

3)      Data:

i)        Population and Sampling:

ii)       Analysis:

(a)    Gender, Health status and Age variables

4)      Econometrics models:

i)        Simple regression models;

(a)    Health status and age:

1. Model specification and Expected signs
2. Results:

(b)   Health status and gender:

1. Model specification and Expected signs
2. Results:

ii)       Multiple regression models:

(a)    Health status, age and gender:

1. Model specification and Expected signs
2. Results:

5)      Conclusion:

6)      References:

7)      Appendixes:

1. Introduction:

This paper focuses on health status as related to age and gender, trends in health status as related to age and gender can be associated with social economic status and biological factors. The following is a discussion of the theories that relate to health, age and gender, the discussion shows that women get ill often than men, also that older individuals get ill often than younger age groups. Using data from the Wales health survey website data regarding health status, age and sex is retrieved in order to estimate a model that shows the relationship between health, age and gender.

2. Theoretical framework:

According to Doyle (1995) there is a difference in life expectancy and health status among men and women, in this study he states that men are more likely to die while women are more likely to get ill often, also that women life expectancy was higher than that of men, this means that health status differs between male and female whereby women often get ill but higher life expectancy than men.

The difference in health status between male and female is partially explained by the difference in life expectancy, women are more likely to live longer and given that older people get ill often then the majority of individuals who fall ill are women, he points out that women fall ill due to biological factors, these biological factors include the fact that men have greater resistance to diseases than women, the other factor is that women are more likely to report illnesses unlike men. (Steve, 2007)

The difference in health status between men and women is also explained by social economic factors, this include the concept that women are more likely to be poor or have lower levels of income and therefore may fall ill often. The other reason is that women live in a male dominated world and therefore are more likely to be depressed, face domestic violence and other incidences. Men on the other hand are more likely to engage in risky activities such as smoking and drinking and for this reason their life expectancy is lower than that of women. (Doyle, 1995)

With reference to age health status differs across age groups, the population structure is influenced by social economic factors, the dependency ratio which refers to the proportion of the elderly and the labour force is an important measure in the modern society, the old in the society are more likely to have lower income levels than younger individuals, due to this differences then older people are more likely to fall ill often, the other reason is that women comprise of the majority of these old individuals in the society and therefore are more likely to fall ill often. (Steve, 2007)

The other reason why older individuals fall ill often is due to social change that have changed the attitude toward the older individuals, in the modern society due to technological changes older people are not revered due to their experience, they are seen as a burden to the economy because they are unproductive. Differences in health status between the age groups can also be explained by factors such as exercises whereby younger age groups exercise more than older age groups, the other reason is biological factors whereby older people have less resistance to diseases and therefore are more likely to fall ill often. (Steve, 2007)

3. Data:

Population data:

Data was retrieved from Wales health survey website and is available at wales.gov.uk/docs/statistics/2009/090929hlthsurvey08ch3en.xls, data contains information regarding health status, age and sex, the health variable has five categories and they include excellent, very good, good, fair and poor health status, these categories are assigned number 1 to 5 respectively, therefore this means that the higher the value of health status then the individuals has poor health status.

Age is also has seven age groups and they include those aged 16-44 years, 25-34,45-64 and 65+ years, these age groups are assigned number 1 to 3 respectively whereby a higher age value shows than an individual is older. Finally gender is treated as a dummy variable whereby the value 1 shows that the individual is male and number 0 means the individual is female.

Sample:

The population size N = 13226 and therefore we selected a sample that will represent the entire population; an appropriate sample size is calculated as follows:

n = N / (1+N (e2))

Where n is the sample size, N is the population size and e is the expected error which in this case is 5%, the following is a summary of these calculations: n = 13226 / (1+13226 (0.052)) therefore n = 388.258 and the sample size is assumed to be 400

A stratified sample is selected which represent all the age groups, sex and health status, from the results there data set is selected and using STATA the following are the results:

Analysis:

Gender:

Given that the population male and female number is almost equal the sample selected contains 200 male and 200 female respondents, given that 1 represents male and 0 represents female and that 1 depicts excellent health status and 5 poor health status then the following table summarizes the relationship between gender and health:

health

gender

1

2

3

4

5

0

28

65

60

35

12

1

32

66

58

29

15

From the table there are more male than female with excellent health status, however there are male than female with poor health status.

Health status:

Health status is another variable in the data; this variable shows the health status of the respondents, from the table below majority of the individuals have good health status with only 27 individuals with poor health status, the table below summarizes the results:

health

Freq.

1

60

2

131

3

118

4

64

5

27

The chart below summaries the percentage number of Individuals classified with reference to health status;

From the chart 32.7% respondents had good health status, only 6.75% respondents had poor health status and only 15% had excellent health status.

Age:

Age groups was also another variable in the data, the value 1 represented those aged 16 – 44, 2 represented those aged between 45 – 64 and 3 represented those aged 65 and above. The table below summarizes the results:

age

Freq.

1

155

2

140

3

105

From the table majority of the individuals were aged 16 to 44 years while only 105 were aged 65 years and above, this means that majority of the respondents were young while only a few were older. The chart below summarizes the results:

The chart shows that 38.75% of the respondents were aged 16 to 44 years, 35% were aged 45 to 64 years and 26.25% were aged 65 years and above.

Health status and gender:

The relationship between health and age can be analyzed using a scatter diagram; the diagram below shows the relationship between the two variables:

From the chart as the age scale increases then the health value also increases, from the health scale as the health status value increases then this means that health is deteriorating whereby value 1 means that an individual has excellent health while value 5 shows that an individual has poor health.

4. Econometric model:

Simple regression:

In this section the simple regression models are estimated to show the relationship between health, age and gender, using the above theories the models are specified as follows:

Health status and gender:

The model is specified as follows:

Health status = a1 + b1 gender + Ei

The value of b1 is expected to be negative given that the value of gender 1 means that the respondent is male, male individuals will yield a lower level of health status as stated in the theoretical framework whereby women are more likely to get ill often than men. The value of a1 is expected to be positive given that health status should be positive even when the value of gender is zero.

Results:

The table below summarizes the results:

Number of obs

= 400

F( 1, 398)

= 0.16

Prob > F

= 0.687

R-squared

= 0.0004

Adj R-squared

= -0.002

health

Coef.

Std. Err.                 t

P>t

[95% Conf.

Interval

gender

-.045

.1119241             -0.40

0.688

-.2650364

.175036

_cons

2.69

.0791423             33.99

0.000

2.534411

2.84558

From the above results the estimated model is as follows:

Health status = 2.69 -0.045 gender

The model states that when gender = 1(male) then the value of health status declines by -0.045(move toward the value 1 which is excellent health status), if the gender value is zero (female = 0) then the health status value is 2.69.

Hypothesis test:

Gender coefficient:

Null hypothesis: B1 = 0, alternative hypothesis B1 ≠ 0

Given that the T statistics value < T critical value, then the null hypothesis is accepted, this means the gender coefficient is not statistically significant

Constant value:

Null hypothesis: a1 = 0, alternative hypothesis a1 ≠ 0

Given that the T statistics value > T critical value, then the null hypothesis is rejected, this means the constant is statistically significant

Health status and age:

The model is specified as follows:

Health status = a2 + b2 age + Ei

The value of b2 is expected to be positive given that as age increases health status also increases, the value of a2 is expected to be positive given that health status should be positive even when the value of age is zero.

Results:

The table below summarizes the results:

Number of obs

= 140

F( 1, 1403)

= 258.05

Model

266.062098

1 266.062098

Prob > F

= 0.0000

Residual

1446.53861

1403 1.03103251

R-squared

= 0.1554

Adj R-squared

= 0.1548

Total

1712.60071

1404 1.21980108

Root MSE

= 1.0154

Health status

Coef.

Std. Err.                  t

P>t

[95% Conf.

Interval]

age

.2170625

.0135123            16.06

0.000

.190556

.243569

_cons

1.770863

.0603805            29.33

0.000

1.652417

1.889309

From the table the model is specified as follows

Health status = 1.770863 + 0.217 age

The above model states that as age increases then  health status increases, an increase in the value of health status means that an individual will move from excellent health status to poor health status, the R squared value of the model is 0.1554 meaning that 15.54% deviations in health status is explained by age.

Hypothesis test:

Age coefficient:

Null hypothesis: B2 = 0, alternative hypothesis B2 ≠ 0

Given that the T statistics value > T critical value, then the null hypothesis is rejected, this means the age coefficient is statistically significant

Constant value:

Null hypothesis: a1 = 0, alternative hypothesis a1 ≠ 0

Given that the T statistics value > T critical value, then the null hypothesis is rejected, this means the constant is statistically significant

Multiple regressions:

This section estimates a multiple regression model where age and gender are independent variables and health status is the dependent variable;

Model specification;

Models are specified with reference to existing theories, using our discussion on theories that depict the relationship between health, age and gender the model is specified as follows:

Health status = a1 + b1age + b2 gender

Expected signs:

We expect that the value of b1 will be positive, this will mean that as age increases then health status increases from excellent to poor, the value of b2 is expected to negative and this means that when the value of gender is one which means the respondent is male then health status is expected to have a lower value (health scale: 1 excellent and 5 poor)

Results:

The table below summarizes the results:

Number of obs

= 400

F( 2, 397)

= 28.25

Prob > F

= 0.0000

R-squared

= 0.1246

Adj R-squared

= 0.1202

health

Coef.

Std. Err. t

P>t

[95% Conf.

Interval]

gender

-.045

.1048723 -0.43

0.668

-.2511745

.1611745

age

.4940887

.0658351 7.50

0.000

.3646596

.6235178

_cons

1.763584

.1440026 12.25

0.000

1.480481

2.046687

From the table the model can be stated as follows:

Health status = a1 + 0.4940887age -0.045gender

The above model states that when gender is male then health status declines, also when the age value is increased the health status increases.

Hypothesis test:

Age coefficient:

Null hypothesis: B1 = 0, alternative hypothesis B1 ≠ 0

Given that the T statistics value > T critical value, then the null hypothesis is rejected, this means the age coefficient is statistically significant

Gender coefficient:

Null hypothesis: B2 = 0, alternative hypothesis B2 ≠ 0

Given that the T statistics value < T critical value, then the null hypothesis is accepted, this means the gender coefficient is not statistically significant

Constant value:

Null hypothesis: a1 = 0, alternative hypothesis a1 ≠ 0

Given that the T statistics value > T critical value, then the null hypothesis is rejected, this means the constant is statistically significant

F test:

Null hypothesis: a1 =b1=b2 = 0, alternative hypothesis a1 ≠ b1 ≠ b2 ≠ 0

Given that the F statistics value > F critical value, then the null hypothesis is rejected; this means the coefficients are statistically significant.

6. Conclusion:

Theories have been developed to explain the relationship between age and health status, health and gender, from these theories some argue that women are more likely to get ill than mean, analyzing the relationship between gender and health status show that male are more likely to have better health status than women. Age is also a factor that influence health status, as individuals grow old their health status deteriorates and this is depicted by the regression showing the relationship between age and health where as age increases the health status shifts to poor health status. Further stuffy should aim at determine other factors that influence the health of individuals.

7.References:

Doyle, L. (1995). What makes women sick? Macmillan, London.

Coleman, et al. (1993). Ageing in the twentieth century, Sage: London

Liu H and Shaffer D. (2004). The Effects of Gender and Age on Health. Macmillan, London.

Steve Brindle (2007). Gender, Health and Age, retrieved on 7th January, from

Wales Health statistics (2008). Health survey data 2008, retrieved on 7th January, from

 

8. Appendixes

log: C:Documents and SettingsAdministratorDeskto

> p2222.smcl

log type: smcl

opened on: 7 Jan 2010, 04:27:08

. table health

health Freq.

1 60

2 131

3 118

4 64

5 27

. table gender health

health

gender 1 2 3 4 5

0 28 65 60 35 12

1 32 66 58 29 15

. table age health

health

age 1 2 3 4 5

1 38 63 39 11 4

2 16 46 45 23 10

3 6 22 34 30 13

. graph pie, over(age) title(Age)

. graph pie, over(age) title(Age) plabel(_all percent)

. graph pie, over(health) title(Age) plabel(_all percent)

. graph pie, over(health) title(Health) plabel(_all percent

> )

. table health

health Freq.

1 60

2 131

3 118

4 64

5 27

. table age

age Freq.

1 155

2 140

3 105

. save “C:Documents and SettingsAdministratorDesktopdat

> a used.dta”, replace

file C:Documents and SettingsAdministratorDesktopdata u

> sed.dta saved

. twoway connected health age

. scatter health age, sort

. regress health age gender

Source SS df MS Numb

> er of obs = 400

F(

> 2, 397) = 28.25

Model 62.148867 2 31.0744335 Prob

> > F = 0.0000

Residual 436.628633 397 1.09982023 R-sq

> uared = 0.1246

Adj

> R-squared = 0.1202

Total 498.7775 399 1.25006892 Root

> MSE = 1.0487

> ——————-

health Coef. Std. Err. t P>t [

> 95% Conf. Interval]

> ——————-

age .4940887 .0658351 7.50 0.000 .

> 3646596 .6235178

gender -.045 .1048723 -0.43 0.668 -.

> 2511745 .1611745

_cons 1.763584 .1440026 12.25 0.000 1

> .480481 2.046687

> ——————-

. regress health age

Source SS df MS Numb

> er of obs = 400

F(

> 1, 398) = 56.44

Model 61.946367 1 61.946367 Prob

> > F = 0.0000

Residual 436.831133 398 1.09756566 R-sq

> uared = 0.1242

Adj

> R-squared = 0.1220

Total 498.7775 399 1.25006892 Root

> MSE = 1.0476

> ——————-

health Coef. Std. Err. t P>t [

> 95% Conf. Interval]

> ——————-

age .4940887 .0657676 7.51 0.000 .

> 3647933 .623384

_cons 1.741084 .1339789 13.00 0.000 1

> .477689 2.004478

> ——————-

. regress health gender

Source SS df MS Numb

> er of obs = 400

F(

> 1, 398) = 0.16

Model .2025 1 .2025 Prob

> > F = 0.6879

Residual 498.575 398 1.25270101 R-sq

> uared = 0.0004

Adj

> R-squared = -0.0021

Total 498.7775 399 1.25006892 Root

> MSE = 1.1192

> ——————-

health Coef. Std. Err. t P>t [

> 95% Conf. Interval]

> ——————-

gender -.045 .1119241 -0.40 0.688 -.

> 2650364 .1750364

_cons 2.69 .0791423 33.99 0.000 2

> .534411 2.845589

> ——————-

About the Author

Author is associated with SuperiorPapers.us which is a global Research Papers and Term Papers Writing Company. If you would like help in Research Papers and Term Paper Help you can visit Term Paper Help, Non-Plagiarized Essays and College Essays.

Smokers die younger! Than who?

…

…

…

Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society $11.00 Now revised to include new words and updated essays, Keywords focuses on the sociology of language, demonstrating how the key words we use to understand our society take on new meanings and how these changes reflect the political bent and values of society….

New Keywords: A Revised Vocabulary of Culture and Society $15.99 Over 25 years ago, Raymond Williams’ Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society set the standard for how we understand and use the language of culture and society. Now, three luminaries in the field of cultural studies have assembled a volume that builds on and updates Williams’ classic, reflecting the transformation in culture and society since its publication. New Keywords: A Revised Voca…

Niche Domain Name Research, Keyword Research & How to Find an Exact Match .COM Domain (Supertargeting Affiliate Training) $2.99 Volume 5 of the SuperTargeting Affiliate Training Series is a very unique e-book in this affiliate program coaching series.This book is an in-depth look over my shoulders as I research a niche Amazon affiliate market, perform keyword research with the Google Keyword Tool, and ultimately find an exact match .COM domain name that is available for registration.Nothing is held back in this special e-b…

TOYOTA CAMRY 2012 CAR SUV Truck Auto Center Armrest Cover $23.95 Center Armrest covers protect, renew and add comfort to the center console of your vehicle. This cover fits a 2012 TOYOTA CAMRY. Picture shown is of an example of our product on a center armrest. Cover is made from a fleece fabric and is machine washable…

HONDA CIVIC 2007-2010 Car Auto Center Armrest Console Cover $23.95 Center Armrest covers protect, renew and add comfort to the center console of your vehicle. This cover fits a 2007-2010 HONDA CIVIC. Picture shown is of our product on a center armrest. Cover is made from a fleece fabric and is machine washable…

Seat Cover (PAIR)- FOR ALL MAZDA 6 SEDANS – Auto Bottom Seat Cover $39.99 Fits the Bottom Bucket Seats of all year/make/models of MAZDA 6 SEDANS. Bottom Seat Covers are the perfect way to protect the seats of your vehicle. We make the bottoms only because this part of your seat takes on the most wear and dirt. To many people choose not to purchase seat covers because they hide their beautiful interior. With bottom seat covers your only hiding what you sit on and the res…

Lilyette Women’s Plunge Into Comfort Keyhole Minimizer $32.00 Our lilyette keyhole minimizer bra’s sexy plunge design provides a v-shape pitch that enhances cleavage while providing a sexy and secure fit on the body…

Maidenform Women’s One Fabulous Fit T-Shirt Bra $32.00 America’s no1 t-shirt bra, maidenform’s one fabulous fit tailored demi bra is your perfect every day bra…

Maidenform Women’s Custom Lift? Tailored Satin Demi Bra #9729 $33.00 Our maidenform custom lift tailored bra is uniquely designed to give you the perfect lift for your cup size…

Freaklance Fausto with bike graphic tablet and keyword – 3 Inch Snowflake Porcelain Ornament $12.75 Freaklance Fausto with bike graphic tablet and keyword Ornament is measuring 3 inches. This Glossy Porcelain Snowflake Ornament is perfect gift for grandparents, aunts, uncles and friends. Commemorate each holiday season with a new ornament. Image is printed on both sides. Comes with the gold hanging cord….

…

Freaklance Fausto with bike graphic tablet and keyword – Set Of 4 Ceramic Tile Coasters $19.99 Freaklance Fausto with bike graphic tablet and keyword Coaster is new commercial quality product that will complement your home decor. Available in 3.5″ x 3.5″ soft rubber-backed polyester and 4.25 x 4.25 ceramic high gloss finish tiles with rubber backing. Colors will not run….

KIKE CALVO photo illustrations FREAKLANCES Collection – Freaklance Fausto with bike graphic tablet and keyword – Light Switch Covers – double toggle switch $13.75 Freaklance Fausto with bike graphic tablet and keyword Light Switch Cover is new and handcrafted utilizing unique process resulting in a stunning high gloss ceramic-like finish. SET OF MATCHING SCREWS IS INCLUDED giving it a perfect finishing touch. Made of durable metal material….

KIKE CALVO photo illustrations FREAKLANCES Collection – Freaklance Fausto with bike graphic tablet and keyword – Light Switch Covers – 2 plug outlet cover $13.95 Freaklance Fausto with bike graphic tablet and keyword Light Switch Cover is new and handcrafted utilizing unique process resulting in a stunning high gloss ceramic-like finish. SET OF MATCHING SCREWS IS INCLUDED giving it a perfect finishing touch. Made of durable metal material….

KIKE CALVO photo illustrations FREAKLANCES Collection – Freaklance Fausto with bike graphic tablet and keyword – Light Switch Covers – single toggle switch $11.75 Freaklance Fausto with bike graphic tablet and keyword Light Switch Cover is new and handcrafted utilizing unique process resulting in a stunning high gloss ceramic-like finish. SET OF MATCHING SCREWS IS INCLUDED giving it a perfect finishing touch. Made of durable metal material….

Naturalizer Women’s Carlene Flat $69.00 Lighten every step you take in the Naturalizer Women’s Carlene Loafer! Thanks to the N5 Comfort System, you’ll love the flexible, lightweight comfort of this versatile moccasin. Ergonomic heel and toe shapes deliver enhanced stability and balance as you walk, and the slip-resistant thermoplastic rubber outsole keeps you steady on your feet. The polyurethane foam insole gives you extra underfoot cu…

Stride Rite SRT Draco Sandal (Toddler) • A super-cool casual he’ll love to wear • Leather/mesh upper • Hook and loop closures • Sensory Response Technology™ allows his feet to feel the ground beneath him • Contoured self-molding footbed evenly disperses pressure • Midfoot reinforcement provides support …

Stride Rite Brady Washable Sandal (Toddler/Little Kid) $44.00 Kids Stride Rite, Brady Closed toe adventure Sandals A great fusion of a sneaker and sandal made to be extra-durable Can be Machine washed and air dried leather and mesh uppers in a breathable but still protective sandal style Antimicrobial treated fabric linings to wick away moisture and prevent odors Dual adjustable straps – one at the instep and the other at heel for a personalized and sec…

KIKE CALVO photo illustrations FREAKLANCES Collection – Freaklance Fausto with bike graphic tablet and keyword – Water Bottles $9.99 Freaklance Fausto with bike graphic tablet and keyword Water Bottle is 21oz capacity – 8 inch tall, 2.5 inch diameter. Sports bottle have become a welcome addition to today’s fitness craze. Use sports water bottle while exercising, gardening or watching sports events. Water bottle comes with image on both sides and it is top shelf dishwasher safe….

SE Glow-in-the-Dark Brass Compass $1.50 Night Hike? Go ahead. If you’ve got your glow-in-the-dark compass with you, you can find your way back without having to grope around trying to feel the moss on the north side of the trees. In brass, 2″ dia x 1/2″ thick, with a bezel with 2-degree increments and a 13/16″ dia hook on top….

Wooden Pool Talbe Ball Triangle, Mahogany $9.99 From Felson Billiard Supplies comes this stylish mahogany pool ball triangle sure to please any billiards player. Constructed of sturdy wood, this triangle has a 12-inch base and measures 11 ½ inches tall. Simple and classy, this triangle will stand out on any pool table….

Kuzy® – AQUA BLUE Keyboard Silicone Cover Skin for Macbook / Macbook Pro 13 15 17 Aluminum Unibody $1.00 Dress up your MacBook Pro in fashionable color, silicone protection now. *** Will Not fit MacBook Air 11″ ***…

Kuzy – METALLIC AQUA BLUE Keyboard Silicone Cover Skin for Macbook / Macbook Pro 13 15 17 Aluminum Unibody $1.00 Dress up your MacBook Pro in fashionable color, silicone protection now. *** Will Not fit MacBook Air 11″ ***…

Kuzy – GREEN Keyboard Silicone Cover Skin for Macbook / Macbook Pro 13 15 17 Aluminum Unibody $1.00 Dress up your MacBook Pro in fashionable color, silicone protection now. *** Will Not fit MacBook Air 11″ ***…

A Game of Thrones LCG: The Grand Melee Chapter Pack $8.48 FFGGOT79 A Game of Thrones LCG: The Grand Melee Chapter Pack by Fantasy Flight Games The Grand Melee is the second monthly Chapter Pack of the A Tale of Champions cycle of expansions for A Game of Thrones: The Card Game! It introduces 60 cards – 3 copies each of 20 never-before-seen characters, events, locations, and attachments to give you more A Game of Thrones specific multiplayer deck-building…

Green Toys Sand Play Set $11.00 Kids will ‘dig’ building castles and hunting for buried treasure with the environmentally friendly Sand Play Set from Green ToysTM. Made of recycled plastic, this classic 4-piece collection of tools consists of a bucket, sand castle mold, shovel and rake. Made in the U.S.A from recycled plastic milk containers, which helps save energy, reduces landfill waste, and lowers greenhouse gas emissions, a…

Alex Toys Learn to Dress Monkey $24.63 Learn to dress from head to toe with Alex the monkey| This 22? long plush doll has 11 dressing activities that help develop fine motor skills. Learn to snap on straps, button, hook and loop, zipper and more. Comes with real socks and lace up sneakers, and his shirt and overalls are removable, too. Suitable for age 18 months and up….

---